8 Jun 2011

STEM CELL TECHNOLOGY


           
Stem cells save the room to self renew as well as to yield children with a restricted mitotic the makings and restricted range of evident types of differentiated cell they produce increase to. The formation of blood cells furthermore called haematopoiesis is the classical model of thought of stem cells. Indirect assay methods were urban to identify the haematopoietic stem cells. The process of haematopoeis is occurs in the pique and bone spirit in mouse. Inside creature beings in this area 100,000 haematopoietic stem cells yield lone billion RBC, lone billion platelets, lone million T-cells, lone million B cells for every kg body consequence for every time.
Several methods be inflicted with been urban to study haematopoiesis and stem cells:
A) Repopulation assay- Edmens Snell’s assemble produced mice which were genetically identical by mating of sibling mice with 21 generations. Two groups of mice were lethally X- irradiated to end their blood cell forming room. One of this assemble was injected with spirit cells from the femur bone of a habitual and healthy albino mice. It was experimental with the intention of this assemble survived while the mice in the other assemble died. The pique of mice which survived had the colonies of the bone spirit cells solely like bacterial colonies on a Petri plate. This came to be renowned as colony forming units of pique (CFU-S) and the practice is renowned as repopulation assay.

B) The in vitro clonal assay- inside this assay, the stem cells breed to form colonies of differentiated cells on semi-solid media. This assay helps in identifying growth factors vital pro the formation of blood cells from the primitive stem cells. One of the initially commercialized biotechnology manufactured goods - erythropoietin was assayed by this procedure.

C) lengthy stretch spirit culture- inside this method, the spirit cells from femur bone were developed under in vitro conditions on plastic surfaces. These techniques were caring in bone spirit transplantation and behavior of blood cancer by releasing immature blood cells into the blood spill.

D) Embryonic stem cell culture- Embryonic stem cells are cell shape derived from the inner cell bulk of fertilized mouse kernel lacking the aid of immortalizing or transforming agents. The Inner cell bulk (ICM) are the cells with the intention of are maintained in tissue culture in the presence of irradiated fibroblast cells. These cells are often used in creating chimeric mice. Inside 1998, J.A. Thomson urban the method to multiply the creature budding stem cells. Human ICM can furthermore be currently derived either by IVF or from microorganism cell precursors and educated on a Petri plate. The differentiation of these cells into family tree restricted (neuronal and glial) cells can be accomplished by changing the media in which the cells grow.

E) The ICM cells may possibly be used to create chimeric mice. Inside chimeric mice it was doable to take ES cells from a black mouse and establish it into the kernel of an albino mouse (white). The children so urban had skin colour of black and white ( a chimera).
Following diagram shows the scheme of obtaining chimeras.

Genetic Engineering of creature cells and their applications
The mammalian cells are genetically modified by introducing the genes looked-for pro point purposes such as production of point proteins or to increase the characteristics of a cell line. The methods used to introduce the foreign genes/DNA into mammalian cells are: Electroporation, Lipofection, Microinjection and/or fusion of mammalian cells with bacteria or viruses.
After the integration of the foreign genetic material into the mammalian cells, the transfected/transformed cells are selected by using apposite markers. Some of such markers in aid are: Viral thymidine kinase, Bacterial dihydrofolate reductase, Bacterial neomycin phosphotransferase. It has been doable to overproduce several proteins in mammalian cells through genetic manipulations e.G. Tissue plasminogen activator, erythropoietin, interleukin-2, interferon- beta, clotting factors VIII and IX, cancer necrosis factors. The recombinant mammalian cells are furthermore conveniently used pro the production of monoclonal antibodies.
Manipulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes
The eukaryotic organisms be inflicted with the capability to bring in this area the post-translational modifications such as glycosylation, phosphorylation, proteolytic cleavage and that which ultimately helps in the production of established and geologically committed proteins. Due to these reasons the aid of eukaryotic face logic is preferred however it is trying to conduct experiments with eukaryotic cells. The introduction of a foreign genetic material into creature cells is called transfection. The slot in genetic material in the eukaryotic cells could be associated with vector or integrated into the host chromosomal genetic material. Among the various hosts used pro the face of cloned genes, the ordinary mushroom Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the generally extensively used. Besides this, the educated insect cells are in aid pro expressing cloned DNAs. Baculoviruses exclusively infect insect cells. The genetic material of these viruses encode pro several products and their productivity in cells is very distinguished to the boundary of more than 10,000 era compared to mammalian cells. The baculoviruses not single involve a generous digit of foreign genes but can furthermore express and process the products formed. By using baculovirus as an face vector logic, a skilled digit of mammalian and viral proteins be inflicted with been synthesized. The generally commonly used baculovirus is Autographa californica multiple nuclear polyhedrosis virus (AcMNPV). It grows on the insect cell shape and yield distinguished levels of polyhedrin or a recombinant protein.
The mammalian cell face vectors are used pro the production of point recombinant proteins and to study the function and parameter of mammalian genes. However, large-scale production of recombinant proteins with engineered mammalian cells is costly. The mammalian vector contains a eukaryotic origin of duplication from an creature virus such as Simian virus 40 (SV 40) and a prokaryotic origin of duplication. It has a multiple cloning locate and a selectable marker gene, both of which wait under the control of eukaryotic promoter and polyadenylation sequences. These sequences are obtained from either creature viruses (SV40, herpes simplex virus) or mammalian genes (growth hormone, metallothionein). The promoter sequences facilitate the transcript of cloned genes (at the multiple cloning site) and the selectable marker genes. On the other furnish, the polyadenylation sequences terminate the transcript.
Collection and refining process of Recombinant proteins
Equally the recombinant proteins start accumulating in the host cells, it becomes valuable to assemble and purify them. This is a tricky process since many era the recombinant protein is a foreign body pro the host cells and the enzyme machinery of the host cell becomes activated to degrade the outside protein. One of the strategies adopted is the aid of bacterial strains deficient in proteases or on the other hand, the recombinant proteins are combined with the native host proteins. The fusion proteins are strong to protease endeavor. Sometimes, the foreign proteins accumulate as aggregates in the host organism which minimizes the protease degradation. The preeminent way made known is to quickly export and ooze made known the recombinant proteins in to the surrounding standard. The recovery and the refining of foreign proteins is easier from the exported proteins. The hard work be inflicted with been made to develop methods to boost the export of recombinant proteins.
Some of the species of the bacterium, Bacillus subtilis normally ooze generous quantities of extracellular proteins. A fleeting genetic material sequence called indicate sequence from such species is introduced into other B. Subtilis. These bacteria yield recombinant genetic material tagged with indicate peptide, which promotes export and discharge. This indicate peptide is indifferent with the refining of foreign protein. The techniques used pro the refining of recombinant proteins from the mixture of secreted proteins are sympathy cataloging, immunoaffinity refining and that.
Organ culture and Histotypic cultures
The cell-cell interaction leads to a multistep actions in in vivo situations. For model, hormone stimulation of fibroblasts is reliable pro the relief of surfactant by the lung alveolar cells. Androgen binding to stomal cells stimulates the at a low ebb epithelium. Inside other terms, hormones, nutritional factors and xenobiotics exert stimulating things on the cells to function in a coordinated style. Xenobiotics broadly refers to the unnatural, foreign, and phony chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, refrigents, solvents and other organic compounds. It is impracticable to study these cellular interactions with the intention of occur in the in vivo logic with isolated cells or cells in culture. This has principal to the attempts to develop organ and histotypic culture with the take aim of creating in vitro models comparable to the in vivo logic. The three types of such cultures are:
A) Organ culture- inside this type of culture, the total organs or small fragments of the organs with their special and intrinsic properties intact are used in culture.
B) Histotypic culture- The cell shape developed in three dimensional matrix to distinguished density speak for histotypic cultures.
C) Organotypic cultures- A element of an organ is produced by using cells from uncommon lineages in proper ratio and spatial link under laboratory conditions.
Organ culture
Inside the organ culture, the cells are integrated as a single element which helps to save the cell to cell interactions found in the native tissues or organs. Due to the maintenance of structural integrity of the first tissue, the associated cells take up again to chat signals through cell hold or communications. Due to the lack of a vascular logic in the organ culture, the nutrient supply and chatter chat of the cells be converted into restricted. Inside order to overcome this conundrum, the organ cultures are placed by the interface linking the liquid and gaseous phases. Sometimes, the cells are exposed to distinguished O2 concentration which could furthermore principal to oxygen induced toxicity. Due to the imperfect supply of the nutrients and oxygen, approximately degree of necrosis by the central part of the organ could occur. Inside all-purpose, the organ cultures donot grow apart from approximately amount of proliferation with the intention of could occur on the outer cell layers.
Techniques and Procedure pro organ culture
Inside order to optimize the nutrient and chatter exchanges, the tissues are reserved by chatter restricted interface using the support material which ranges from semisolid gel of agar, clotted plasma, micropore filter, lens paper, or strips of Perspex or plexiglass. The organ cultures can furthermore be developed on top of a stainless steel grid. Another standard scale pro growing organ cultures is the filter-well inserts. Filter-well inserts with uncommon equipment like terracotta, collagen, nitrocellulose are currently commercially unfilled. Filter well inserts be inflicted with been successfully used to develop functionally integrated thyroid epithelium, stratified epidermis, intestinal epithelium, and renal epithelium.
The procedure pro organ cultures has the following steps:
A) The organ tissue is collected with the dissection.
B) The size of the tissue is cut-rate to a reduced amount of than 1mm in thickness.
C) The tissue is placed on a chatter standard interface support.
D) Incubation in a CO2 incubator.
E) M199 or CMRL 1066 standard is used and altered often.
F) The techniques of histology, autoradiography, and immunochemistry are used to study the organ cultures.
The advantages of organ culture
The organ cultures can be used to study the behavior of an integrated tissue in the laboratory. It provides an opportunity to understand the biochemical and molecular functions of an organ/tissue.
Limitations of organ culture
It is a trying and expensive practice. The variations are distinguished with low reproducibility. For all conduct experiment, a extra or fresh organ is looked-for as organ cultures are not propagated.
Histotypic cultures
Using histotypic culture, it is doable to aid single monolayers to rekindle tissue like structures. It the growth and procreation of cell shape in three-dimensional matrix to distinguished cell density with the intention of contributes to this. The techniques used in histotypic cultures are:
A) Gel and sponge technique- inside this method, the gel (collagen) or sponges (gelatin) are used which provides the matrix pro the morphogenesis and cell growth. The cells infiltrate these gels and sponges while growing.
B) Hollow fibers technique- inside this method, hollow fibers are used which helps in more efficient nutrient and chatter chat. Inside contemporary years, perfusion chambers with a bed of plastic capillary fibers be inflicted with been urban to be used pro histotypic type of cultures. The cells make attached to capillary fibers and boost in cell density to form tissue like structures.
C) Spheroids - The re-association of dissociated educated cells leads to the formation of cluster of cells called spheroids. It is akin to the reassembling of budding cells into specialized structures. The opinion followed in spheroid cultures is with the intention of the cells in heterotypic or homotypic aggregates be inflicted with the skill to sort themselves made known and form groups which form tissue like architecture. However, here is a limitation of diffusion of nutrients and gases in these cultures.
D) Multicellular tumour spheroids- These are used as an in vitro proliferating models pro studies on tumour cells. The multicellular tumour spheroids be inflicted with a three dimensional organize which helps in performing experimental studies correlated to drug therapy, invasion of drugs above and beyond using them pro studying parameter of cell proliferation, immune response, cell death, and invasion and gene therapy. A size larger than 500 mm leads to the development of necrosis by the centre of the MCTS. The monolayer of cells or aggregated tumour is treated with trypsin to take a single cell suspension. The cell suspension is inoculated into the standard in magnetic stirrer flasks or roller tubes. After 3-5 days, aggregates of cells representing spheroids are formed. Spheroid growth is quantified by measuring their diameters evenly. The spheroids are used pro many purposes. They are used as models pro a vascular tumour growth. They are used to study gene face in a three-dimensional configuration of cells. They are furthermore used to study the effect of cytotoxic drugs, antibodies, radionucleotides, and the apply of particular diseases like rheumatoid arthritis.
Organotypic cultures
These cultures are used to develop particular tissues or tissue models pro model skin equivalents be inflicted with been produced by culturing dermis, epidermis and intervening layer of collagen at once. Similarly models be inflicted with been urban pro at a low ebb, breast and that. Organotypic culture involves the combination of cells in a point ratio to create a element of an organ. 
some of  STEM cells

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