HIV behavior: -- Tackling the deadly virus

Dec 05, 2011: Ever since the discovery of creature immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the cause of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) in the 1980s, not single has this unstable virus been causing a raging pandemic across the globe, it has furthermore evaded numerous techniques and pathways designed to tackle this wicked virus.

While scientists were unavailable engaging in committed investigate tiresome to build a miracle vaccine to fight this dreaded virus, it has either frankly or indirectly claimed the lives of near 30 million public, according to UNAIDS. Also, in this area 34 million are now living with HIV.

Although this growing phenomenon of AIDS/HIV paints a depressing and grim picture of the development of extra drugs and therapies, here is thumbs down denying with the intention of here has indeed been progress since the commencement of HIV vaccine investigate, which roughly ongoing all through the in the dead of night 1980s. Hence, this year’s theme pro World AIDS Day which is experimental on December 1, is universal access and creature civil rights. Access to shape services remains low and majority of the infected public are uninformed of their HIV status. Two-thirds of patients with well ahead HIV infection sort out not make behavior, and two made known of three HIV-infected pregnant women sort out not benefit from antiretroviral prophylaxis.

Current responses to the pandemic be inflicted with proved unequal to the challenge posed by HIV. For each person who begins antiretroviral behavior, two public be converted into newly infected by the virus. The HIV promote is probable to grow to $10.6 billion by 2015, driven in part by extra drugs from Merck, Pfizer and Tibotec, according to Datamonitor.

Although here is intense amount of investigate being conceded made known in the meadow of vaccines, here are furthermore clinical trials underway pro the discovery of efficient drugs to handle the condition of AIDS. According to the International AIDS Vaccine Initiative (IAVI), here are a whole of 185 period I clinical trials with 9,603 volunteers; 17 period I/II trials with 1,645 volunteers; 17 period II clinical trials with 10,947 volunteers and three period III clinical trials with 24,303 volunteers.

The sales of standard HIV drugs Celsentri, Isentress and Atripla are estimated to get to $350 million, $400 million and $1.7 billion, correspondingly, by 2015. It is furthermore estimated with the intention of TMC125 sales will secure $200 million by 2015 while TMC278 will exceed more than $500 million in sales. Asia’s HIV pandemic is currently entering a following growth period, which may possibly get behind HIV prevalence to almost 10 million by 2020 if prolonged prevention hard work are not introduced.

The elusive vaccine

About 7,000 public a time are infected with HIV. An AIDS vaccine with 50 percent efficacy agreed to 30 percent of the population would ward off 5.6 million extra infections in low-and-middle-income countries from 2015 to 2030. So how has the progress been so far?

During the ahead of schedule years of investigate, scientists by both broadcast and confidential sectors tried leveraging on the the tried and tested path of creating an imitation of a part of an HIV envelope protein by using it as an antigen in their vaccine candidate, combining this with an adjuvant and in suspense with the intention of this vaccine candidate would trigger the production of neutralizing antibodies hostile to HIV. Unfortunately, this method did not verify to be quite as thriving as in the justification of hepatitis or creature papillomavirus.

There are three major reasons why HIV has proved such a amazing foe to vaccine designers and immune systems alike. First, it is by far the generally variable virus with the intention of scientists be inflicted with always encountered.

A digit of uncommon subtypes of the virus, renowned as clades, circulate in uncommon regions of the planet. Within persons clades here is extensive changeability, and, further than with the intention of, the virus mutates furiously surrounded by the public it has infected. Second, since thumbs down lone is renowned to be inflicted with vacant an HIV infection, we sort out not know which elements of the immune response should be engaged to control the virus and hence are uncertain how to imitate such responses. Finally, the immune logic has a very narrow window of opportunity in which to neutralize HIV previous to the virus establishes a lifetime infection.

With a mission to tackle HIV, numerous organizations like Therapeutics Research, Education, and AIDS Training in Asia (TREAT Asia), IAVI, UNAIDS (the establishment United Nations curriculum on HIV/AIDS), law and Melinda Gates Foundation, Rockefeller Foundation, Ford Foundation and others be inflicted with extended collaborations with investigate organizations in an effort to collate methodical minds in the quest pro producing the much yearned vaccine pro HIV.

TREAT Asia is a arrangement of clinics, hospitals, and investigate institutions working with civil society to ensure the safe and effectual manner of speaking of HIV/AIDS treatments right through Asia comforting. Facilitated by The Foundation pro AIDS Research (amfAR), TREAT Asia seeks to strengthen HIV/AIDS trouble, behavior, and management skills amongst healthcare professionals through education and training programs urban by experts in the region. Since 1985, amfAR has invested near $325 million in its programs and has awarded grants to more than 2,000 investigate teams worldwide.

The IAVI’s mission is to ensure the development of safe, effectual, reachable and preventive HIV vaccines pro aid right through the planet. The IAVI has collaboration with a digit of institutions in sub-Saharan Africa, India, the United Kingdom, Europe and the United States. They are engaged in HIV-related investigate with the intention of is essential both pro laying the basis pro large-scale efficacy trials (or period III trials) and pro informing the design of AIDS vaccine candidates.

One Asian initiative with the intention of managed to grab the world’s attention was the RV-144 trial, which is the leading HIV trial conducted in Asia so far. The study, which began in 2003, was an international collaborative effort with the intention of involved more than 16,000 Thai volunteers and hundreds of scientists and clinicians from Thailand, Europe and the United States. The manufactured goods tested was ALVAC HIV, the prime vaccine, manufactured by Sanofi Pasteur and AIDSVAX B/E, the booster vaccine used in the trial, urban by VaxGen.

The trials showed with the intention of the combination of the higher than vaccines lowered the rate of HIV infection by 31.2 percent compared to excuse. That was the initially particular evidence, since the discovery of the virus in 1983, with the intention of a vaccine hostile to HIV was eventually feasible. Sanofi says with the intention of the Thai period III trial collaborators are already working with international methodical experts to expedite the design and implementation of appropriate prospect studies, so with the intention of the repayment of this investigate will be unfilled as quickly as doable.

"This is a modest but noteworthy advance in the development of a vaccine hostile to HIV. The study investigators and the volunteers should be congratulated pro their bring about. The study results be inflicted with publicized pro the initially calculate with the intention of safe vaccines pro humans hostile to HIV can be urban. Equally more analyses be converted into unfilled, this will help additional development of vaccines. Despite the advances, it remains real with the intention of a ‘ready to aid vaccine’ is years, if not decades, away. Meanwhile, focus should take up again on evidence-informed combination HIV prevention programs with the intention of are ashore in creature civil rights. When vaccines be converted into unfilled they should be made universally unfilled and reasonably priced,’’ says the UNAIDS regional support team pro Asia comforting.

GSK is a further company with the intention of has been working towards producing an HIV vaccine. Their study of HIV vaccine 732462 is designed to determine whether administration of the GSK Biologicals HIV vaccine 732462 can principal to a reduction in viral load, and impression on the way of creature HIV-1 infection. Inside HIV-1 infected personnel who be inflicted with not yet ongoing antiretroviral therapy (ART), such a vaccine would potentially principal to delay in the admittance of behavior. This study is now in period II.

Inside a further occasion, Chinese scientists by the China’s National Centre pro AIDS/STD control and Prevention be inflicted with claimed to be inflicted with successfully conceded made known the initially period of clinical trial of an HIV vaccine and are likely to start the following stage in a hardly any months. With companies and institutions working absorbedly to bring an aim to this plaguing virus, perhaps here is light by the aim of the tunnel pro HIV vaccine and its researchers.

Evolving behavior

When scientists realized with the intention of preventive measures to handle HIV by earnings of vaccines was a tough task, all thankfulness to HIV’s constantly mutating envelope, they twisted their attention towards behavior of HIV. Undoubtedly, the generally thriving treatments pro HIV/AIDS has been the aid of antiretroviral drugs with the intention of constitute five antiretroviral drug classes: Fusion/entry inhibitors, integrase inhibitors, nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Research is furthermore underway into a type of drug which may possibly form a the makings extra drug rank, the maturation inhibitor. According to clinicaltrials.Gov, here are now 762 studies in period III trials relating HIV.

"A investigate released by the US National Institutes pro Health (NIH) in 2011 showed antiretroviral behavior to be 96 percent effectual in preventing HIV transmission surrounded by sero-discordant couples. The substance of scaling up access to behavior is apparent,’’ says the UNAIDS regional support team pro Asia comforting.

The companies with the intention of are generally actively engaged in the development of these drug types include Gilead, Shionogi (Japan), ViiV Healthcare (a comprehensive specialist HIV company established by GlaxoSmithKline and Pfizer), Taimed Biologics (Taiwan), Bristol Myers and Avexa (Australia) to first name a hardly any. Some of the drugs urban by these companies be inflicted with entered the penultimate period III stage of clinical trials.

Gilead, by bestow, has three candidates in period III and lone in period I stage of clinical trials; Taimed has lone in period IIb; Shionogi and ViiV Healthcare be inflicted with two candidates in period II and lone in period III stage, ViiV Healthcare has two candidates in period II and Bristol Myers has lone in period III; Apricitabine (ATC, AVX754) by Avexa of Australia has discussed results from period II/III with the FDA and is proceeding with its development.

Speaking in this area the clinical trial progress of Taimed’s HIV drugs Ibalizumab (TMB-355) and TMB-358, Mr Jack Chen, the fiscal controller of TaiMed Biologics says, "In 2011, the period IIb clinical trial pro the TMB-355 intravenous formulation was clogged. Data analysis of the period IIb study was furthermore finalized and reported to FDA by June 2011."

Inside addition, the TMB-355 subcutaneous formulation is urban as the following generation drug to back up the pipeline. The monkey creature develop pro the pharmacokinetics suggests with the intention of the subcutaneous formulation spectacle the long-lasting and long-acting pharmacokinetic font with comparison to the intravenous lone. The company diplomacy to launch the money-making manufactured goods by the aim of 2013.

Gilead Sciences too has a handful of candidates designed to fight and handle HIV/AIDS in various phases of clinical trials. "We take up again to dedicate our HIV investigate and development hard work to advancing single-tablet regimens with the intention of take up valuable uncomplaining needs," says Dr Norbert Bischofberger, executive sub- president, investigate and development and chief methodical detective, Gilead Sciences.

The company recently submitted a extra drug attention to the US FDA pro marketing praise of Quad, a complete single-tablet regimen of elvitegravir, cobicistat, emtricitabine, and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate pro the behavior of HIV-1 infection in adults. If standard, Quad would be the single once-daily, single-tablet regimen containing an integrase inhibitor.

Speaking in this area Quad, Dr Bischofberger says, "Based on data from our central studies, we believe with the intention of Quad has the the makings to be an valuable extra behavior option pro public living with HIV, and we are satisfied to be inflicted with reached this noteworthy achievement a reduced amount of than six weeks with unblinding of the following central period III study. The NDA is supported by 48-week data from two central period III studies in which Quad met its primary objective of non-inferiority as compared to Atripla (efavirenz 600 mg/emtricitabine 200 mg/tenofovir disoproxil fumarate 300 mg) (Studies 102) and to a regimen containing ritonavir-boosted atazanavir (Studies 103). Complete data from Quad central studies will be presented by a methodical talks in 2012."

He additional says, "Based on the availability of data from both central Studies 102 and 103, we are currently working towards filing pro the US regulatory praise of Quad by the aim of the time. Quad may possibly be a blockbuster drug pro Gilead as all of the components are owned by the company. This may possibly be a the makings accomplishment amongst HIV patients who be inflicted with to cope with a enormous amount of pills on a day after day basis. What is uncommon is with the intention of Quad would be the initially drug to incorporate an integrase inhibitor, lone with the intention of is designed to check the skill of HIV to imitate.

If standard, Quad would be the single once-daily, single-tablet regimen containing an integrase inhibitor, a rank of antiretroviral drug designed to check the proceedings of integrase, a viral enzyme with the intention of inserts the viral genome into the genetic material of the host cell.

Elaborating on the contemporary Bristol-Myers Squibb and Gilead Sciences licensing agreement pro development and commercialization of fixed-dose combination containing Bristol-Myers Squibb’s protease inhibitor Reyataz (atazanavir sulfate) and Gilead’s cobicistat, Dr Bischofberger says, "Cobicistat provides us with the the makings to co-formulate with a variety of commercially unfilled HIV medicines with the intention of require boosting pro optimal efficacy, such as the protease inhibitor atazanavir." Gilead’s cobicistat is a pharmacoenhancing or "boosting" agent with the intention of increases blood levels of particular HIV medicines to potentially allow pro lone pill once-daily dosing.

"This agreement represents a shared stanchness linking Gilead and Bristol-Myers Squibb to develop multiple behavior options with the intention of can take up party uncomplaining needs," says Dr Bischofberger. Both Reyataz (atazanavir sulfate) and Cobicistat are now in period III studies.

Although producing a miracle in the form of a vaccine pro preventing HIV might still be years away, here is hope pro patients living with HIV as here is constant effort to yield drugs much more efficient and safer than before drugs.

Ongoing clinical trials of candidate AIDS vaccines with support of IAVI IAVI B001 - clinical trial of Ad35-GRIN/ENV (US): This period I trial, made in collaboration with the University of Rochester Medical Center, evaluates the safety and immunogenicity of an AIDS vaccine candidate built into a vector with the intention of is based on serotype 35 of the adenovirus (Ad35).

IAVI B002 - Prime-boost trial of adjuvanted GSK investigational AIDS vaccine with Ad35-GRIN (Kenya, Uganda, Zambia): This period I trial is the initially to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of a candidate comprising two components, counting a protein-based vaccine element urban and manufactured by GSK and a viral vector vaccine element manufactured by Transgene. This element is made from a version of Adenovirus serotype 35 (Ad35) with the intention of has been stripped of its skill to imitate inside cells.

The trial is sponsored by IAVI and will be conducted in relationship with GSK; the Kenya AIDS Vaccine Initiative in Nairobi; the Uganda Virus Research Institute-IAVI in Entebbe, Uganda; the Medical Research Council-Uganda; Virus Research Institute in Masaka, Uganda; and the Zambia Emory HIV Research Project in Lusaka, Zambia. This study will evaluate whether these two components used in combiation will yield broader and stronger immune responses.

IAVI B003/IPCAVD-004 - Prime-boost trial of Ad26.ENVA.01 and Ad35.ENV (US, Kenya, Rwanda, South Africa): This period I trial will evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of two adenovirus vector-based vaccines. It is a establishment effort of the Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center; the HIV Vaccine Trials Network; the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases’ Division of AIDS; the Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University, the biopharmaceutical company, Crucell, and a digit of clinical trial centers.

Six clinical investigate centers are participating in B003/IPCAVD-004. The trial is difficult whether delivering these vaccines in sequential prime-boost combination will induce uncommon types of immune responses or enhance persons responses. Specifically, the strategy might induce both antibody and T-cell responses, and hence obtain a response of greater magnitude, broader effectiveness and longer duration than would either vaccine candidate lonely.

Completed clinical trials of candidate AIDS vaccines with support of IAVI

Prime-boost trial of ADVAX and TBC-M4 (India): Inside collaboration with the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), IAVI, supported a period I clinical trial to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of a prime-boost regimen of two AIDS vaccine candidates, ADVAX and TBC-M4.

Prime-boost trial of ADVAX and TBC-M4 (UK): This period I trial, conducted in collaboration with the Imperial College London and the St. Stephen’s AIDS Trust by the Chelsea and Westminster Hospital is a further randomized, dual blind, placebo-controlled trial of ADVAX and TBC-M4.

Intermittent pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) (Kenya, Uganda): These small period I/II studies were launched in October 2009 by the Kenya AIDS Vaccine Initiative, in Nairobi, the Center pro Geographic Medical Research - Coast, in Kilifi, Kenya, and the Medical Research Council Centre element in Entebbe, Uganda. The PrEP studies were designed to determine whether tenofovir plus emtricitabine tablet administered on an intermittent or day after day basis is safe and acceptable. The studies furthermore compare adherence and drug levels linking the intermittent and day after day regimens. The studies were too small to evaluate whether intermittent or day after day PrEP is effectual in preventing HIV transmission.

Source: IAVI

DNA difference repair address

Any mutational event that disrupts the superhelical structure of DNA carries with it the potential to compromise the genetic stability of a cell. Mismatch repair is a system for recognising and repairing the erroneous insertion, deletion and mis-incorporation of bases that can arise during DNA replication and recombination, as-well as repairing some forms of DNA damage. The fact that the damage detection and repair systems are as complex as the replication machinery itself highlights the importance evolution has attached to DNA fidelity.
Mismatched bases include a G/T or A/C pairing (see DNA repair). The damage is repaired by excising the wrongly incorporated base and replacing it with the correct nucleotide. Usually, this involves more than just the mismatched nucleotide itself, and can lead to the removal of significant tracts of DNA.
Mismatch repair
There are two types of mismatch repair; long patch and short patch. Long patch can repair all types of mismatches (although it is primarily replication associated) and can excise tracts up-to a few kilobases long. Short patch repair handles only specific mismatches caused by damage to the genome, and removes lengths of around 10 nucleotides. Successful mismatch repair requires the error-free execution of three events:
1. Detection of a single mismatch, of which there are eight kinds, in the newly synthesised DNA. 2. Determining which of the two base pairs is incorrect. 3. Correcting the error by excision repair.
Mismatch repair is strand-specific. During DNA synthesis only the newly synthesised (daughter) strand will include errors, and replacing a base in the parental strand would actually introduce an error. The mismatch repair machinery has a number of cues which distinguish the newly synthesised strand from the template (parental). In gram-negative bacteria transient hemimethylation distinguishes the strands (the parental is methylated and daughter is not). In other prokaryotes and eukaryotes the exact mechanism is not clear.
Mismatch repair proteins
Mismatch Repair is a highly conserved process from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. The first evidence for mismatch repair was obtained from S. Pneumoniae (the hexA and hexB genes). Subsequent work on E. Coli has identified a number of genes that, when mutationally inactivated, cause hypermutable strains. The gene products are therefore called the "Mut" proteins, and are the major active components of the mismatch repair system. Three of these proteins are essential in detecting the mismatch and directing repair machinery to it; MutS, MutH and MutL (MutS is a homologue of HexA and MutL of HexB).
MutS forms a dimer (MutS2) that recognises the mismatched base on the daughter strand and binds the mutated DNA. MutH binds at hemimethylated sites along the daughter DNA, but its action is latent, being activated only upon contact by a MutL dimer (MutL2) which binds the MutS-DNA complex and acts as a mediator between MutS2 and MutH, activating the latter. The DNA is looped out to search for the nearest d(GATC) methylation site nearest the mismatch, which could be up to 1kb away. Upon activation by the MutS-DNA complex, MutH nicks the daughter strand near the mismatch and recruits a UvrD helicase (DNA Helicase II) to separate the two strands with a specific 3' to 5' polarity. The entire MutSHL complex then slides along the DNA in the direction of the mismatch, liberating the strand to be excised as it goes. An exonuclease trails the complex and digests the ss-DNA tail. The exonuclease recruited is dependent on which side of the mismatch MutH incises the strand - 5’ or 3’. If the nick made by MutH is on the 5’ end of the mismatch, either RecJ or ExoVIII (both 5’ to 3’ exonucleases) is used. If however the nick is on the 3’ end of the mismatch, ExoI (a 3' to 5' enzyme) is used.
The entire process ends past the mismatch site - i. E. Both the site itself and its surrounding nucleotides are fully excised. The single-stranded gap created by the exonuclease can then be repaired by DNA Polymerase III (assisted by single-strand binding protein), which uses the other strand as a template, and finally sealed by DNA ligase. Dam methylase then rapidly methylates the daughter strand.
MutS
When bound, the MutS2 dimer bends the DNA helix and shields approximately 20 base pairs. It has weak ATPase activity, and binding of ATP leads to the formation of tertiary structures on the surface of the molecule. The crystalline structure of MutS reveals that it is exceptionally asymmetric, and while it's active conformation is a dimer, only one of the two halves interact with the mismatch site.
In Eukaryotes, MutS homologs form two major heterodimers: Msh2/Msh6 and Msh2/Msh3. The Msh2/Msh6 pathway is involved primarily in base substitution and small loop mismatch repair. The Msh2/Msh3 pathway is also involved in small loop repair, in addtion to large loop (~10 nucleotide loops) repair. However, Msh2/Msh3 does not repair base substitutions.
MutL
MutL also has weak ATPase activity (it uses ATP for purposes of movement). It forms a complex with MutS and MutH, increasing the MutS footprint on the DNA.
However, the processivity (the distance the enzyme can move along the DNA before dissociating) of UvrD is only ~40-50bp. Because the distance between the nick created by MutH and the mismatch can average ~600 bp, if there isn't another UvrD loaded the unwound section is then free to reanneal to its complementary strand, forcing the process to start over. However, when assisted by MutL, the rate of UvrD loading is greatly increased. While the processivity (and ATP utilisation) of the individual UvrD molecules remains the same, the total effect on the DNA is boosted considerably; the DNA has no chance to reanneal, as each UvrD unwinds 40-50 bp of DNA, dissociates, and then is immediately replaced by another UvrD, repeating the process. This exposes large sections of DNA to exonuclease digestion, allowing for quick excision(and later replacement) of the incorrect DNA.
Eukaryotes have MutL homologs designated Mlh1 and Pms1. They form a heterodimer which mimics MutL in E. Coli. The human homologue of prokaryotic MutL has three forms designated as MutLα, MutLβ and MutLγ. The MutLα complex is made of two subunits MLH1 and PMS2, the MutLβ heterodimer is made of MLH1 and PMS1, while MutLγ is made of MLH1 and MLH3. MutLα acts as the matchmaker or facilitator, coordinating events in mismatch repair. It has recently been shown to be a DNA endonuclease that introduces strand breaks in DNA upon activation by mismatch and other required proteins, MutSa and PCNA. These strand interruptions serve as entry points for an exonuclease activity that removes mismatched DNA. Roles played by MutLβ and MutLγ in mismatch repair are less well understood.
MutH
MutH is a very weak endonuclease that is activated once bound to MutL (which itself is bound to MutS). It nicks unmethylated DNA and the unmethylated strand of hemimethylated DNA but does not nick fully methylated DNA. It has been experimentally shown that mismatch repair is random if neither strand is methylated. These behaviours led to the proposal that MutH determines which strand contains the mismatch. MutH has no Eukaryotic homolog. It's endonuclease function is taken up by MutL homologs, which have some specialized 5'-3' exonuclease activity. The strand bias for removing mismatches from the newly synthesized daughter strand in eukaryotes may be provided by the free 3’ ends of Okazaki fragments in the new strand created during replication
Defects in mismatch repair
Mutations in the human homologues of the Mut proteins affect genomic stability, which can result in microsatellite instability (MI). MI is implicated in most human cancers. Specifically the overwhelming majority of hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancers (HNPCC) are attributed to mutations in the genes encoding the MutS and MutL homologues, which allows them to be classified as tumour suppressor genes. A subtype of HNPCC is known as Muir-Torre Syndrome (MTS) which is associated with skin tumors.

MALARIAL INFECTIVITY ANIMATRONICS

Malaria is a vector-borne infectious disease caused by protozoan parasites. It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of the Americas, Asia, and Africa. Each year, it causes disease in approximately 650 million people and kills between one and three million, most of them young children in Sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria is commonly-associated with poverty, but is also a cause of poverty and a major hindrance to economic development.

Malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases and an enormous public-health problem. The disease is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. The most serious forms of the disease are caused by Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, but other related species (Plasmodium ovale, Plasmodium malariae, and sometimes Plasmodium knowlesi) can also infect humans. This group of human-pathogenic Plasmodium species is usually referred to as malaria parasites.
Malaria parasites are transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes. The parasites multiply within red blood cells, causing symptoms that include symptoms of anemia (light headedness, shortness of breath, tachycardia etc. ), as well as other general symptoms such as fever, chills, nausea, flu-like illness, and in severe cases, coma and death. Malaria transmission can be reduced by preventing mosquito bites with mosquito nets and insect repellents, or by mosquito control by spraying insecticides inside houses and draining standing water where mosquitoes lay their eggs.
Pathogenesis
Malaria in humans develops via two phases: An exoerythrocytic (hepatic) and an erythrocytic phase. When an infected mosquito pierces a person's skin to take a blood meal, sporozoites in the mosquito's saliva enter the bloodstream and migrate to the liver. Within 30 minutes of being introduced into the human host, they infect hepatocytes, multiplying asexually and asymptomatically for a period of 6-15 days. During this so-called dormant time in the liver, the sporozoites are often referred to as hypnozoites. Once in the liver these organisms differentiate to yield thousands of merozoites which, following rupture of their host cells, escape into the blood and infect red blood cells, thus beginning the erythrocytic stage of the life cycle. The parasite escapes from the liver undetected by wrapping itself in the cell membrane of the infected host liver cell.
Within the red blood cells the parasites multiply further, again asexually, periodically breaking out of their hosts to invade fresh red blood cells. Several such amplification cycles occur. Thus, classical descriptions of waves of fever arise from simultaneous waves of merozoites escaping and infecting red blood cells.
Some P. Vivax and P. Ovale sporozoites do not immediately develop into exoerythrocytic-phase merozoites, but instead produce hypnozoites that remain dormant for periods ranging from several months (6-12 months is typical) to as long as three years. After a period of dormancy, they reactivate and produce merozoites. Hypnozoites are responsible for long incubation and late relapses in these two species of malaria.
The parasite is relatively protected from attack by the body's immune system because for most of its human life cycle it resides within the liver and blood cells and is relatively invisible to immune surveillance. However, circulating infected blood cells are destroyed in the spleen. To avoid this fate, the P. Falciparum parasite displays adhesive proteins on the surface of the infected blood cells, causing the blood cells to stick to the walls of small blood vessels, thereby sequestering the parasite from passage through the general circulation and the spleen. This "stickiness" is the main factor giving rise to hemorrhagic complications of malaria. High endothelial venules (the smallest branches of the circulatory system) can be blocked by the attachment of masses of these infected red blood cells. The blockage of these vessels causes symptoms such as in placental and cerebral malaria. In cerebral malaria the sequestrated red blood cells can breach the blood brain barrier possibly leading to coma.
Although the red blood cell surface adhesive proteins (called PfEMP1, for Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1) are exposed to the immune system they do not serve as good immune targets because of their extreme diversity; there are at least 60 variations of the protein within a single parasite and perhaps limitless versions within parasite populations. Like a thief changing disguises or a spy with multiple passports, the parasite switches between a broad repertoire of PfEMP1 surface proteins, thus staying one step ahead of the pursuing immune system.
Some merozoites turn into male and female gametocytes. If a mosquito pierces the skin of an infected person, it potentially picks up gametocytes within the blood. Fertilization and sexual recombination of the parasite occurs in the mosquito's gut, thereby defining the mosquito as the definitive host of the disease. New sporozoites develop and travel to the mosquito's salivary gland, completing the cycle. Pregnant women are especially attractive to the mosquitoes, and malaria in pregnant women is an important cause of stillbirths, infant mortality and low birth weight

Mayo health centre eyes future trials recruitment with heath information exchange

Drug developers would love to be able to find qualified patients for their studies as easily as doing a Google search. While that might be a long way from becoming a reality, the Mayo Clinic has become one of the latest healthcare groups to embark on creating a new breed of electronic health data exchange that could someday be used to identify patients for clinical trials, InformationWeek reports.

Mayo is tackling one of the biggest bugaboos in sharing electronic patient data, a lack of interoperability among records systems. With plans to roll out its next-generation health information exchange (HIE) in southeast Minnesota, the health group is utilizing a range of technologies such as the government's CONNECT software and the same unstructured information management architecture as tech giant IBM's ($IBM) Watson supercomputer, according to the InformationWeek piece.

A key to Mayo's project is to normalize terms from different electronic medical records systems and build databases that can be used to gain insights into the health of patients whose data reside in disparate systems. This effort faces some similar challenges in terms of normalizing information from different records systems as the Partnership to Advance Clinical Electronic Research (PACeR), which is planning a pilot project in New York State that aims to aid in clinical research and in overcoming challenges of finding patients for clinical trials.

- read the article in InformationWeek

Mayo health centre Builds Next-Gen Health in sequence Exchange

Open-source natural language processing software will provide additional context so that clinicians and researchers can better use patient data from a variety of sources.

By Ken Terry InformationWeek

Using a Beacon grant provided by the Office of the National Coordinator of Health IT, the Mayo Clinic is building what may be the next generation of health information exchanges (HIE) with a group of healthcare providers in southeast Minnesota. In this real-world demonstration, Mayo will apply the computer tools it is developing through a federal SHARP grant to create new methods of mining electronic health record (EHR) data.

"We're building a patient data repository for southeast Minnesota that will execute on a lot of the promise and principles we're articulating in our SHARP grant," said Christopher Chute, MD, a Mayo Clinic epidemiologist and the principal investigator on Mayo's SHARP grant.

Mayo is using the government's CONNECT software to establish the HIE. The world-famous group practice also is working with the pioneering Indiana Health Information Exchange to build a data repository like the one in Indianapolis. "We'll use that to do population health management, aggregate outcomes analysis, and comparative effectiveness research pooled across healthcare encounters by different providers with the same patients," said Chute.

What's different about Mayo's approach is that it will use natural language processing to identify terms in disparate EHRs so that they can be mapped to a normative terminology such as SNOMED CT. This "semantic interoperability" will make it possible to create databases that transcend the differences between the vocabularies in different EHRs.

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In contrast, Chute said, alternative HIE approaches such as that found in Microsoft's Amalga product simply provide a way of viewing data in disparate systems. "The Amalga tool pays very little attention to data normalization," Chute said. "It basically provides common views of the information and facilitates broad-scale review across multiple patients."

The researchers are using Mayo's open-source natural language processing software within a framework established by the IBM Watson Center to provide additional context so that clinicians and researchers can better use patient data from a variety of sources. The Watson supercomputer, which made headlines when it beat human contestants at "Jeopardy," uses the same UIMA (unstructured information management architecture) framework.

So far, the Mayo scientists have applied their new tools to records of 30 patients with diabetes at Intermountain Healthcare and about 10,000 patients from the Mayo Clinic. These tests demonstrated their ability to run through the process from end to end, said Chute, but did not show whether they could normalize data from different EHRs. That's one of the goals of the Beacon demonstration project.

The three legs of the SHARP stool, Chute said, include automating aspects of terminology mapping to a standard lexicon and "syntactic normalization" of defective HL7 or Continuity of Care Document (CCD) messages. Put another way: The new system can repair ill-formed HL7 or CCD messages by analyzing the messages to determine what's wrong with the syntax of the message and correct it so that its content can be understood.

The third leg of the stool is natural language processing, which will be applied to clinical notes containing data that doesn't show up in administrative codes, lab results, or medication lists. Analyzing signs and symptoms, for instance, can make the categorization of diagnoses much more accurate, he said.

In the long run, Chute predicted, the tools Mayo is developing might be useful in clinical trials--for example, in identifying candidates for studies--and in triggering clinical decision support. Someday, he added, it might be possible to apply natural language processing to physician dictation, so that terms could go into discrete fields in an EHR. While much research must be done before that happens, he noted that the current mode of documentation in EHRs tends to slow doctors down.

"I think we'll end up with a hybrid of some structured data, augmented by a large amount of dictated or textual data. And I hope we can leverage the content of that textual data in a reliable and efficient way."

Mayo's SHARP tools and its natural language processing program are open source, noted Chute, and any developer can get a free license. Commercial applications may be based on these tools, but Mayo isn't looking to profit from them, he said.

"We're not a software company. We're not trying to make money off this environment, we're trying to help our patients."

In the new, all-digital InformationWeek Healthcare: IPads are leading a new wave of devices into the exam room. Are security, tech support, and infection control up to the task? Download it now. (Free registration required.)

Biomedical Equipment Technician

By John F Smith

In this modern age when population's health and life span is continuously declining, works and positions related to medical industry are thriving. People rely on doctors, nurses, therapists and medical practitioners to take care of their health that mostly, they themselves have neglected. In this scenario, an individual works silently behind the scene but his role in medical world is of great importance as well. He is the biomedical equipment technician (BMET). He is responsible in the installation, inspection, calibration, modification, testing and repair of highly technical medical equipments. Not anybody can work as biomedical equipment technician because this position requires a 2-year associate's degree in Biomedical Equipment Technology, Biomedical Electronics Technology, or Biomedical Engineering Technology or about one year in full-time military training.

As competition is getting stiffer as time goes by, a biomedical equipment technician's resume must be well written, comprehensive and detailed. One must highlight qualifications especially professional certifications such as Certified Radiology Equipment Specialists (CRES), and Certified Laboratory Equipment Specialists (CLES). Carrying the title of certified biomedical equipment technician (CBET) is not mandatory but is highly encouraged as this generates respect within the technical community. Additionally, a BMET can list all equipments that he can handle to show multi-tasking ability. He can also include character traits such detail-oriented, patience or tolerance to stress and willingness to work on irregular hours as BMET are mostly on call. He should also emphasize his good communication skills as this is important in listening to the problems of the equipment as explained by the user and is important in training people on the proper procedure in handling of equipment and correcting operator error tactfully and in a professional manner.

It would be advantageous for a BMET to enhance and update his understanding of software and electronics as many new medical devices are increasingly reliant on computers.

Need information about sample resumes for Biomedical Equipment Technician, visit ProSampleResumes.Com.

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Biomedical Engineering Combines Many Skills

By Sally Tolentino

Twenty years ago, any graduating college student with just about any major was able to acquire basically any job they desired, as long as they fulfilled the qualifications. Now, though, even with all the qualifications, graduating college students must enter a rigorous process of interviews and intense competition-all for the possibility of a job. These days, choosing the right major is an extremely important choice for anyone aspiring to be successful-and the perfect way to achieve success is to acquire a major in biomedical engineering.

Now, success is measured in innumerable ways. One is the financial stability that can be gained from occupations involving that major. The median annual salary for a first year biomedical engineer is roughly $48,000, which is only slightly less than that the roughly $56,000 earned by first year electrical engineers (information acquired from salary.Com). However, given the heavily large amount of applicants who apply for electrical engineering (EE) majors nationwide, the competition and rivalry among EE is exceptionally higher and stronger than in biomedical engineering.

When applying for college in pursuit of an electrical engineering major, the risk of being rejected is also higher, especially since biomedical engineering is still a relatively new major, which has just recently begun to become more popular. Even if a student succeeds in being accepted into a college for EE, he will then find himself plagued with multitude of other students aspiring to achieve a degree in EE. This just continues into the job application stage, where the thousands of hardworking EE degree holding bachelors will be narrowed down until only a portion are accepted into actually high paying jobs, since the supply of EE majors is much greater than the demand. The same applies for many other popular majors. Biomedical engineering overcomes any of these challenges, ensuring the degree-receiver a well paying job.

Another measure of success is by the amount of enjoyment or excitement one receives from their job. Biomedical engineering combines the skills and techniques used in chemical, electrical, mechanical, and optical engineering. Knowledge of all these different subjects is necessary in order to be a proper biomedical engineer. For those many students who know they wish to pursue a scientific career-but are not sure which one-this is a perfect assortment of all scientific subjects into one major. A student taking this major will take a variety of classes, and not be anchored down to a specific, detailed analysis of one particular branch of science. Biomedical engineering combines all of science into career.

In a world where more and more people are applying for college, the best way to have fun and ensure a successful future is through biomedical engineering. With more people working in this field, the technological advancement in medicine will also grow, and the world will become a better place. After all, isn't that what America is all about?

Sally is a dedicated writer for StudentScholarships.Org. She is an expert in Biomedical engineering Scholarships, Financial Aid, Career Advice, and most other things college related.

Article Source: Http://EzineArticles.Com/?Expert=Sally_Tolentino 

Autism Treatment - A Biomedical Approach

By Dr. Kurt Woeller

I'd like to discuss my feelings about biomedical interventions for Autism and talk about the reasons why I think it is important to begin a biomedical approach for your child. I lecture around the country and talk on these videos on my website about how important biomedical intervention is. But one thing to recognize is that when we look to implement a biomedical protocol whether that is through diet, supplements, etc, we are really assessing the underlying medical issues.

What that can entail is the use of diagnostic testing, urine, stool, blood, etc. In order to look for imbalances. The imbalances could be nutritional like vitamins and minerals, essential fats or amino acids. Or the imbalances could be biochemical or involve digestive problems. Kids may not be digesting their food appropriately and they may have chronic diarrhea or chronic constipation. So regardless of the diagnosis of the child, I think we can all agree that the right assessment is still needed. But often a label of Autism can exclude a child from getting the appropriate assessment for these underlying medical disorders.

First and foremost I want to know what is going on with my patient's health, as their biomedical specialist. That is the reason for the testing that we use. But that does not mean that I can say that one specific therapy will treat a certain core set of symptoms or eradicate them completely. But, when you address the underlying medical issues of a child with Autism and you look at the diagnostic results and treat accordingly, in many cases you can have an improvement in the individual's Autism and in some cases it can go away. When we use a biomedical treatment approach what we really are doing is optimizing the individual's potential.

You are evaluating the underlying medical issues and addressing them as appropriate. Whether the person has a diagnosis of Autism or not should not matter in the diagnosis and treatment of these specific underlying health issues. The Autism diagnosis should not impede the use of diagnostic testing to ensure that your child is as healthy as they can be. It does require a unique and specialized physician's approach to implement some of this testing and the therapies that we use. But when you take a step back, you realize that what we are doing is to optimize the potential of the individual. And some of the ways we do that are through nutrition, supplementation and diagnostic testing.

Autism really is treatable! Biomedical Autism treatments and therapies have resulted in many, many children improving, or even even losing their autism-spectrum disorder diagnosis. For lots more free biomedical autism intervention information and videos from Dr. Woeller, go to http://www.AutismRecoveryTreatment.Com.

Dr. Kurt Woeller is an biomedical autism Intervention specialist, with a private practice in Southern California for over 10 years. He has helped children recover from autism, ADD, ADHD, and other disorders, and has the information you need to help your child. Download his free ebook at http://www.AutismActionPlan.Org.

Article Source: Http://EzineArticles.Com/?Expert=Dr._Kurt_Woeller 

Finding the Right Biomedical Equipment

By Dominic Ivankovich

Medical equipment is designed to help and assist in the diagnosis, treatment, and monitoring of various medical conditions. During production, this equipment goes through stringent safety tests to ensure optimal, safe performance. Biomedical equipment is often referred to as diagnostic equipment because it helps in determining underlying medical conditions. X-rays are one of the most common examples of biomedical equipment. With the improvement in technology over the past decades, medical equipment too has seen phenomenal growth. The motto of modern biomedical engineering is "Better health care through technology," and this is clearly defined through the advanced equipment available. These machines, too, are constantly monitored to ensure a smooth functioning.

Radiation protection is the science of protecting people from the harmful effects of radiation. Radiation is present everywhere, not just in medical facilities like hospitals. Equipment for radiation detection is important for hospitals, fire departments, HAZMAT teams, nuclear power and testing facilities, and x-ray departments. Radiation detectors allow us to monitor the amount of radiation present in an area and control it within safety limits. An excess of exposure to radiation is known to cause cancers, genetic ailments, and tumors. That is why radiation detectors have come to play such a key role in facilities where radiation is present.

The quality of the equipment, too, is extremely important. With biomedical equipment, a faulty device can be risky for a human life. When choosing equipment, it is important to choose wisely and to go with a trusted brand name which provides a benchmark in terms of quality control. Good biomedical equipment will go through a series of tests to make sure it is working safely for the patient's health. Safety must be a higher priority than other factors like cost.

Radiation is present everywhere. Minor traces of radiation are even present in our homes because of devices like microwaves and television. Exposure to minor radiation has become virtually impossible to avoid. In excess, however, radiation can cause extreme damage not just to one person, but also to future generations. That's why radiation detectors are vital for places where people are at risk for exposure to radiation. Hospitals are one example of a place where employees and patients are at a risk of exposure. Therefore, radiation detection equipment is necessary to monitor radiation level. It is wise to choose equipment from a trusted source that will provide well-tested and safe equipment.

Fluke Biomedical is the premiere, global provider of test and measurement equipment and services to the healthcare industry. We serve biomedical engineers, quality-assurance technicians, medical physicists, oncologists and radiation-safety professionals. Fluke Biomedical offers a complete line of simulators such as patient simulators and blood pressure simulator and safety products and solutions that allow these professionals the versatility they need to get the job done.

Article Source: Http://EzineArticles.Com/?Expert=Dominic_Ivankovich 

Are Biomedical Therapies Safe For Children?

By Dr. Kurt Woeller

Are biomedical therapies for children with an autism spectrum disorder safe? Is there any risk to doing therapies such as diet (gluten and casein-free), supplements (multivitamin/minerals, calcium and magnesium, fish oil, etc.) or even Methyl-B12 therapy?

Implementing biomedical autism interventions such as the gluten and casein-free diet or nutritional supplements can be an effective process for many children with an autism spectrum disorder. The question is are they safe, or are there any inherent dangers with biomedical therapy?

The simplest statement to give is, "diet and supplement support is safe and effective." Like anything in medicine there is no guarantee of absolute safety or side effect-free therapy. Each child is different in their genetic and biochemical make-up and their reaction to therapy will vary. For example, when incorporating a new supplement such as Methyl-B12 (which helps many kids with language, social, attention and focusing issues) hyperactivity can be stimulated for some in the beginning. This reaction is not life-threatening or toxic, but some kids can respond this way - usually it is short-lived.

The same can be seen with dietary changes such as gluten and casein removal. Some children have such strong chemical reactions to these food items that when they are removed from their diet significant aberrant behavior can occur such as irritability, aggression and/or restlessness, sleeping problems, etc. Again, these behaviors usually subside on in a few days. These are not life-threatening or toxic reactions, but do indicate that gluten and casein are causing some abnormal chemical alterations - which they are known to do. On the flip side, many times positive gains are also seen such as improved eye contact, language skill, cognitive awareness, and others when these therapies are implemented.

Contrast this with common drug therapy such as Risperdal. Risperdal is a drug often prescribed for autism to help with aggressive behavior. It can be helpful in some, but the side effect profile is lengthy and in some can cause permanent neurological damage.

In my experience, biomedical intervention through the use of diet and nutritional support has never created toxic reactions or side effects that are seen with many pharmaceutical drugs. In fact, in many cases biomedical treatment has lessened the need for drug therapy all together in many children.

Don't let ANYONE tell you there is nothing you can do to help your child. Autism really is treatable! Start your child down the road to recovery from autism. Biomedical Autism treatments and therapies have resulted in many, many children improving - even losing their autism-spectrum disorder diagnosis. For more information and a free ebook on biomedical autism treatment go to http://www.AutismActionPlan.Org.

Dr. Kurt Woeller is an autism biomedical specialist, with a private practice in Southern California for over 10 years. He has helped children recover from autism, ADD, ADHD, and other disorders, and has the information you need to help your child. Get his ebook, "7 Facts You Need To Know About Autism (But Probably Weren't Told)." You can download it right now for free at http://www.AutismActionPlan.Org.

Article Source: Http://EzineArticles.Com/?Expert=Dr._Kurt_Woeller

Autism Treatment Using Biomedical Therapies

By Dr. Kurt Woeller

Previously in other videos I have talked about therapies that are considered traditional treatments for Autism spectrum disorders like medications such as Risperdal and therapies like speech therapy, occupational therapy and behavioral therapy. Now I would like to cover something called biomedical therapies. Biomedical therapies are therapies that are utilized medically but are not what we would consider a recognized therapy in traditional medical communities. However, that does not reduce their effectiveness since these therapies can be very effective. They may not be well known or recognized throughout the medical world but biomedical therapies really break down into multiple categories.

The first category we will cover is supplements. We have seen that using various supplements like multi-vitamins, multi-minerals, B-12, folic acid, etc. Can be helpful for some individuals. In fact, B-6 which is a specific vitamin, can be very helpful for quite a few individuals on the Autism spectrum because it has a bolstering effect on brain chemistry that can aid in eye contact, focusing, attention and even in some cases, behavioral problems.

There are also therapies out there that address the digestive problems that many children with Autism have. We know there is a link between digestive toxicity and brain function. So when we look at yeast and bacterial issues in the digestive tract and we use things like probiotics or prescriptions like Nystatin, Diflucan or even sometimes antibiotics to treat these issues, we see children improve cognitively.

We can also intervene biomedically through the use of dietary therapy. Once of the most common dietary therapy is the gluten and casein free diet. Gluten and casein can produce a chemical effect on the brain. We have seen issues with this in regards to individuals with depression, schizophrenia and bi-polar disorder. And for people on the Autism spectrum we also see that these specific food proteins have a negative impact on brain chemistry and cause problems in attention, eye contact, socialization, language and behavior.

So although biomedical therapies tend to fall outside of the norm from the perspective of the traditional medical community, they can be incredibly powerful and useful. Biomedical therapies are medical interventions through the use of supplements, dietary therapies, digestive interventions, etc. They can help support traditional therapies like ABA, OT and speech therapy and in many cases can be even more powerful than those other interventions. So it is very important to remain open minded about other possibilities and to continue to learn and search out new ways to support individuals with Autism. There are so many treatment avenues and I have just touched on a few of them in this video.

Don't let ANYONE tell you there is nothing you can do to help your child. Autism really is treatable! Start your child down the road to recovery from autism. Biomedical Autism treatments and therapies have resulted in many, many children improving, or even even losing their autism-spectrum disorder diagnosis. For lots more free biomedical autism intervention information and videos from Dr. Woeller go to http://www.AutismRecoveryTreatment.Com. Dr. Kurt Woeller is an biomedical autism Intervention specialist, with a private practice in Southern California for over 10 years. He has helped children recover from autism, ADD, ADHD, and other disorders, and has the information you need to help your child. Get the information you need at his free blog above, interact with him directly at his membership website at http://www.AutismActionPlan.Org.

Article Source: Http://EzineArticles.Com/?Expert=Dr._Kurt_Woeller 

Biomedical Engineering Training Studies

By Renata McGee

The use of medical tools and aides to treat patients is possible by integrating medicine and biology to create workable technologies. Biomedical engineering is a field that is highly specialized and students can enter an education through numerous colleges and universities. There are a number of things to learn prior to enrollment in an online biomedical engineering school.

1. Studies encompass all the areas that are needed to create usable technologies for the health care field. These can include inflatable casts, ear thermometers, surgical staples, and magnetic resonance imaging machines. Students dive into a curriculum that covers biology in regards to medical engineering. Biomechanics, biomaterials, biomedical systems, linear differential equations, biofluids, and nanotechnologies are some courses that make up the overall career study. Education concentrates on how to combine science and technology to create needed biological processes to deliver improved health care. Over 100 colleges and universities offer degree programs allowing students to utilize their strengths. Specialties can include medical imaging, rehabilitation engineering, biomaterial engineering, and biomechanics engineering.

2. Introductory courses like biomedical engineering, research, and nanotechnology are typically taken in the first two years of a degree program. An introduction to biomedical engineering course teaches students the history and social relevancy of modern bioengineering areas. Study covers industry areas like action potential, signal process, genetic engineering, and bioimaging. A research course goes into how to collect and analyze biophysical measurements. Colleges teach students the process, which includes measuring, testing, and linear regression. Collecting data using different equipment like A/D boards is also touched on. The use of emerging nanoscale materials is taught in a nanotechnology course. The study on this newer form of technology is centered on applications that include electrical, biomedical, and mechanical engineering.

3. In the third and fourth years of a traditional program studies focus more on advanced subjects and concentration courses are taken. Biomechanics engineering, genetic engineering, tissue engineering, and drug delivery engineering are a few courses included in the second portion of a typical degree program. A biomechanics course focuses on the mechanics that apply to living organisms. The behaviors of organisms are studied to understand how biological processes restrain them. A genetic engineering course teaches students to understand how molecular bioengineering works and how it is used inside the industry. All areas of genetics are taught, which includes DNA breakdown, cell information, and recombinant technology in regards to DNA. Students look at all the societal issues and ethics related to genetic engineering to establish considerations for regulation. A drug delivery course focuses on the engineering of designing systems that administer drugs to patients. Biocompatibility and the formulation of controlled release devices are focused on. These courses make up key areas of studies that students follow up with advanced training and understanding.

Students can enter training at all levels allowing them to enter the field with ease. Earning a bachelor's degree is the industry standard to enter a career as a biomedical engineer. Completing an accredited degree program at the graduate level prepares students for specialties, research, and technology innovation careers. Full accreditation is provided by agencies like the Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (http://www.Abet.Org/) to programs that offer quality educational training. Begin working through a degree program to become a part of the fast growing and technology driven industry of biomedical engineering.

DISCLAIMER: Above is a GENERIC OUTLINE and may or may not depict precise methods, courses and/or focuses related to ANY ONE specific school(s) that may or may not be advertised at PETAP.Org.

Copyright 2010 - All rights reserved by PETAP.Org.

Renata McGee is a staff writer for PETAP.Org. Locate Biomedical Engineering Schools and Colleges as well as Online Biomedical Engineering Schools at PETAP.Org, your Partners in Education and Tuition Assistance Programs.

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Recent Progress in Biomedical Applications of Magnetic Nanoparticles

Magnetic nanoparticles have been proposed for biomedical applications for several years. Various research groups worldwide have focused on improving their synthesis, their characterization techniques and the specific tailoring of their properties. Yet, it is the recent, impressive advances in nanotechnology and biotechnology which caused the breakthrough in their successful application in biomedicine. This paper aims at reviewing some current biomedical applications of magnetic nanoparticles as well as some recent patents in this field. Special emphasis is placed on i) hyperthermia, ii) therapeutics iii) diagnostics. Future prospects are also discussed. 

Alzheimer's disease linked to mid-life cholesterol

Alzheimer’s disease takes many years to develop and, with an aging population, it has become increasingly urgent to discover ways of preventing this, the most common form of dementia, from taking hold. 

Previously,  high cholesterol in mid-life has been linked to an increased risk of Alzheimer’s disease.  Now researchers at Kaiser Permanente’s Research Division and at the University of Kuopio, Finland, unveil the longest, and largest, study to link high cholesterol with Alzheimer’s disease.  They also find a link with vascular dementia,  which suggests some overlap in the two forms of dementia.

A group of nearly 10,000 men and women had their cholesterol levels measured between 1964 and 1973 and were then followed up for around 40 years. During this time, there were 469 patients diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease and 127 with vascular dementia.  Taking a baseline of less than 220 mg/dL cholesterol, the researchers say that raised levels increase the risk of both Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia in later years.  That is, having cholesterol levels higher than 240 mg/dL increases Alzheimer’s disease risk by 66% and even borderline levels, between 220 and 240 mg/dL, increase the risk of both forms of dementia.  This study is notable because it includes a large and diverse group of people - previous studies on Alzheimer’s disease and high cholesterol have been more limited.

Around 100 million Americans are estimated to have cholesterol levels that are higher than desirable. Worse, many do not even know it! The take home message is to be aware of your cholesterol figures (this means total cholesterol but also the high and low density lipoprotein cholesterol figures).  And if they stray beyond desirable levels, there are both lifestyle modifications that can be made and medications, like statins, which are proven effective in cholesterol lowering.  It is surely worthwhile aiming for a healthy cholesterol figure if the payoff is a reduced risk of Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia.

Recent developments in biomedical optics

The rapid growth in laser and photonic technology has resulted in new tools being proposed and developed for use in the medical and biological sciences. Specifically, a discipline known as biomedical optics has emerged which is providing a broad variety of optical techniques and instruments for diagnostic, therapeutic and basic science applications. New laser sources, detectors and measurement techniques are yielding powerful new methods for the study of diseases on all scales, from single molecules, to specific tissues and whole organs. For example, novel laser microscopes permit spectroscopic and force measurements to be performed on single protein molecules; new optical devices provide information on molecular dynamics and structure to perform `optical biopsy' non-invasively and almost instantaneously; and optical coherence tomography and diffuse optical tomography allow visualization of specific tissues and organs. Using genetic promoters to derive luciferase expression, bioluminescence methods can generate molecular light switches, which serve as functional indicator lights reporting cellular conditions and responses in living animals. This technique could allow rapid assessment of and response to the effects of anti-tumour drugs, antibiotics, or antiviral drugs. This issue of Physics in Medicine and Biology highlights recent research in biomedical optics, and is based on invited contributions to the International Conference on Advanced Laser Technology (Focused on Biomedical Optics) held at Cranfield University at Silsoe on 19--23 September 2003. This meeting included sessions devoted to: Diffuse optical imaging and spectroscopy; optical coherence tomography and coherent domain techniques; optical sensing and applications in life science; microscopic, spectroscopic and opto-acoustic imaging; therapeutic and diagnostic applications; and laser interaction with organic and inorganic materials. Twenty-one papers are included in this special issue. The first paper gives an overview on the current status of scanning laser ophthalmoscopy and its role in bioscience and medicine, while the second paper describes the current problems in tissue engineering and the potential role for optical coherence tomography. The following seven papers present and discuss latest developments in infrared spectroscopy and diffuse optical tomography for medical diagnostics. Eight further papers report recent advances in optical coherence tomography, covering new and evolving methods and instrumentation, theoretical and numerical modelling, and its clinical applications. The remaining papers cover miscellaneous topics in biomedical optics, including new developments in opto-acoustic imaging techniques, laser speckle imaging of blood flow in microcirculations, and potential of hollow-core photonic-crystal fibres for laser dentistry. We thank all the authors for their valuable contributions and their prompt responses to reviewers' comments. We are also very grateful to the reviewers for their hard work and their considerable efforts to meet tight deadlines. 

Recent developments in biomedical optics

The rapid growth in laser and photonic technology has resulted in new tools being proposed and developed for use in the medical and biological sciences. Specifically, a discipline known as biomedical optics has emerged which is providing a broad variety of optical techniques and instruments for diagnostic, therapeutic and basic science applications. New laser sources, detectors and measurement techniques are yielding powerful new methods for the study of diseases on all scales, from single molecules, to specific tissues and whole organs. For example, novel laser microscopes permit spectroscopic and force measurements to be performed on single protein molecules; new optical devices provide information on molecular dynamics and structure to perform `optical biopsy' non-invasively and almost instantaneously; and optical coherence tomography and diffuse optical tomography allow visualization of specific tissues and organs. Using genetic promoters to derive luciferase expression, bioluminescence methods can generate molecular light switches, which serve as functional indicator lights reporting cellular conditions and responses in living animals. This technique could allow rapid assessment of and response to the effects of anti-tumour drugs, antibiotics, or antiviral drugs. This issue of Physics in Medicine and Biology highlights recent research in biomedical optics, and is based on invited contributions to the International Conference on Advanced Laser Technology (Focused on Biomedical Optics) held at Cranfield University at Silsoe on 19--23 September 2003. This meeting included sessions devoted to: Diffuse optical imaging and spectroscopy; optical coherence tomography and coherent domain techniques; optical sensing and applications in life science; microscopic, spectroscopic and opto-acoustic imaging; therapeutic and diagnostic applications; and laser interaction with organic and inorganic materials. Twenty-one papers are included in this special issue. The first paper gives an overview on the current status of scanning laser ophthalmoscopy and its role in bioscience and medicine, while the second paper describes the current problems in tissue engineering and the potential role for optical coherence tomography. The following seven papers present and discuss latest developments in infrared spectroscopy and diffuse optical tomography for medical diagnostics. Eight further papers report recent advances in optical coherence tomography, covering new and evolving methods and instrumentation, theoretical and numerical modelling, and its clinical applications. The remaining papers cover miscellaneous topics in biomedical optics, including new developments in opto-acoustic imaging techniques, laser speckle imaging of blood flow in microcirculations, and potential of hollow-core photonic-crystal fibres for laser dentistry. We thank all the authors for their valuable contributions and their prompt responses to reviewers' comments. We are also very grateful to the reviewers for their hard work and their considerable efforts to meet tight deadlines. 

BioMedical Research Market Report

PWRM, Power 3 Medical Products Inc., (OTCBB: PWRM.OB) is a leader in bio-medical research and the commercialization of neurodegenerative disease and cancer biomarkers, pathways, and mechanisms of diseases through the development of diagnostic tests and drug targets. Four abstracts were accepted for presentation to the annual meeting of the International Congress of Alzheimer’s Disease on July 12, 2010 in Honolulu, Hawaii. The presentations will cover results from protein biomarker discovery, drug response, test development, and ongoing clinical validation trials of the PWRM’s NuroPro AD biomarkers and blood test for Alzheimer’s disease. The four studies to be presented involve a total of 154 Alzheimer’s disease patients and 91 Parkinson’s disease patients, as well as 210 age-matched normal control individuals and 173 disease control individuals. NexMed, Inc. (Nasdaq: NEXMD), a specialty CRO with a pipeline of product candidates based on the NexACT technology, recently announced that the Company will present data at the International Liver Cancer Association (ILCA) Fourth Annual Conference from September 10-12, 2010 in Montreal, Canada. The presentation, entitled, “PrevOnco® Exhibits In Vitro Cytolytic Activity, Prolongs Survival in Kidney Cancer and Leukemia Models and Reduces Tumor Growth Rates Alone and in Concert in a Liver Cancer Model,” is scheduled to be presented by Bassam Damaj, Ph.D., President and Chief Executive Officer of NexMed, on Saturday, September 11, 2010 from 2:30 - 4:30 p.M. NexMed is the largest specialty CRO based in San Diego, CA and is one of the industry's most experienced CROs for in vitro and in vivo pharmacology services and research models. The Company’s goal is to generate revenues from the growth of its Discovery Pre-clinical CRO business, while aggressively seeking to monetize its proprietary NexACT drug delivery technology through out-licensing agreements with pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies, worldwide.Sangamo BioSciences, Inc. (Nasdaq:SGMO) announced the publication of data demonstrating the preclinical efficacy of a human stem cell therapy for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) based on its proprietary zinc finger DNA-binding protein nuclease (ZFN) technology. The ZFN approach enables the permanent disruption of the CCR5 gene, which encodes an important receptor for HIV infection, in all the cell types comprising the immune system that develop from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), and is the basis for a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of HIV/AIDS. Sangamo has two ongoing Phase 1 clinical trials to evaluate the safety and clinical efficacy of this approach in CD4+ T-cells. SGMO engages in the research, development, and commercialization of zinc finger DNA-binding proteins (ZFPs) for gene regulation and gene modification in the United States. Its ZFPs can be engineered to make ZFP transcription factors (ZFP TFs), proteins that can be used to turn genes on or off; and ZFP nucleases, proteins that enable to modify DNA sequences in various ways. 

Nanjing to build biomedical innovation platform

 Inside contemporary years, with the Life Sciences Innovation Park, Jiangsu, Nanjing Biomedical Research Institute to set up a run of development platforms, the Nanjing Yangtze River Delta region began to build the biggest "trough." The then 3 years, the inhabitant, local, public, constituency four 10.0 billion establishment investment of the funds will be frankly contributing to handbook various types of social hub invested 100 billion yuan or more, support a digit of strong innovation skill and bio-pharmaceutical enterprises own intellectual property civil rights growing speedily. 2013,10-Hydroxydecanoic Acid fee , Nanjing will realize super-scale bio-pharmaceutical industry, 500 billion whole. Inside continue week's 2010 International Technology Transfer Conference, Nanjing create extra drugs and health check difficult upload the International Cooperation Forum this in rank.

Forum, bio-pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. Nanjing Aide Kai Teng issued by the Ministry of Science and demonstration corrupt of international cooperation in bio-medicine; Nanjing Pharmaceutical Industrial Group Company in Jiangsu Province was awarded the Fellow of the workstation; Nanjing Pharmaceutical Industrial Group was awarded the engineering focal point in Nanjing biological diagnostic reagents. Inside this regard, Jiangsu Province, Li Qi, deputy director of Science and Technology Department, understood more than 50 billion yuan output regard to realize the goal,10-Hydroxydecanoic Acid , Nanjing, the equipment needs of biomedical industry should be innovative assets overseas docking, which depends on the carrier's construction. Inside undertaking equipment conveying from overseas, in addition to the introduction of technical understanding,10-Hydroxydecanoic Acid supplier, incorporation, captivation, according to the characteristics of the Chinese promote and consumer all ears development and incubation, to realize in the domestic industry.

Pharmaceutical R & D as an valuable corrupt in Jiangsu, lone of the bio-pharmaceutical enterprises in Nanjing in 2008, although the whole digit exceeded 100 years past,CAS 1679-53-4 , of which more than 60 voted for GMP certification, but in all-purpose R & D investment is still small, is still relatively Combination weak state. Nanjing International Technology Transfer Conference pro this special relief of the "medical difficult and extra drug in Nanjing Industrial Technology Innovation Alliance Proposal." Nanjing Medical difficult and extra drug industry equipment innovation strategic alliance initiated by the six units and is still awaiting praise. After the creation of establishment venture alliances to get to dozens of diplomacy to start operations then time.

Energy scavenging sources pro biomedical sensors

Energy scavenging has increasingly be converted into an appealing option pro powering electronic diplomacy since of the almost endless time and the non-dependence on fuels pro energy generation. Moreover, the increase of wireless technologies promises extra applications in health check monitoring systems, but these still visage limitations due to battery time and size. A trade-off of these two factors has typically governed the size, helpful life and capabilities of an sovereign logic. Energy generation from sources such as shift, light and warmth gradients has been established as commercially viable alternatives to batteries pro human-powered flashlights, solar calculators, telephone system receivers and thermal-powered wristwatches, amongst others. Research on energy harvesting from creature activities has furthermore addressed the feasibility of powering wearable or implantable systems. Biomedical sensors can take benefit of human-based activities as the energy source pro energy scavengers. This assess describes the state of the art of energy scavenging technologies pro powering sensors and instrumentation of physiological variables. After a fleeting class of the creature power and the energy generation limits, the uncommon transduction mechanisms, contemporary developments and challenges faced are reviewed and discussed.  

Biomedical Article Classification Using an Agent-Based Model of T-Cell Cross-Regulation

We propose a novel bio-inspired solution pro biomedical article classification. Our method draws from an existing develop of T-cell cross-regulation in the vertebrate immune logic (IS), which is a complicated adaptive logic of millions of cells interacting to distinguish linking harmless and detrimental intruders. Analogously, automatic biomedical article classification assumes with the intention of the interaction and co-occurrence of thousands of terms in text can be used to identify conceptually-related classes of articles-at a smallest, two classes with significant and irrelevant articles pro a agreed thought (e.G. Articles with protein-protein interaction information). Our agent-based method pro paper classification expands the existing analytical develop of Carneiro et al. [1], by allowing us to deal at once with many evident T-cell facial appearance (epitomes) and their collective dynamics using agent based modeling. We already extended this develop to develop a bio-inspired spam-detection logic [2, 3]. Here we develop our agent-base develop additional, and test it on a dataset of publicly unfilled full-text biomedical articles provided by the BioCreative challenge [4].We study several extra parameter configurations leading to cheering results comparable to state-of-the-art classifiers. These results help us understand both T-cell cross-regulation and its applicability to paper classification in all-purpose. Therefore, we trade show with the intention of our bio-inspired algorithm is a promising novel method pro biomedical article classification and pro binary paper classification in all-purpose.